Dulce Et Decorum Est

In the twain verses Dulce et decorousness Est, by Wilfred Owen and The last of the B in all gun turret Gunner, by Randall Jarrell, a common ap masterximation is expressed among the two. The expendability of look in strugglef ar is that theme. two numberss express this theme in the same way and excite subscribers realize the worth of de mean(a)or to our gird forces. In The Death of the Ball Turret Gunner this theme is rendern d i the eye of a firearm that had to experience closing in a way that no other person would infrastand. The writer of the poem, Randall Jarrell recollects his time spend in the air force and his duties.Of which he had to clean event the ball gun turret of aircraft when they were soiled. This task is what Randall speaks of during his poem. The theme of expendability of life in strugglefare, can be fixed on this task since what Randall was authenti prefigurey doing was washing the turret of the kind remains with a hose. This action was non something that exactly happened once this was his duty, an action that was performed regularly. The cleaning and repair of the turret unspoiled meant that a nonher body could be military positiond in the turret with no emotion or hesitation.In Dulce et decorum Est the theme is a alike(p) shown d whizz the eyes of a man that had to experience expiry on a daily basis. The writer of the poem, Wilfred Owen describes an event that occurred during service. Wilfreds description of is that of a fellow brother drowning in swagger clouds and the action or lack of taken later his demise. The theme that the two poems pay in common comes into play when Wilfred recalls the event of other men throwing their brothers body into a station waggon and proceed for contendd like nothing had happened.This action as well as shows the worth of ones life in the armed forces and that a life can easily be replaced. The two poems, The Death of a Ball Turret Gunner and Dulce et decorum Est are t wo works that demonstrate how fragile life is and that to some life can simply be replaced. The theme of the expendability of life in state of contendfare can be placed on both of the poems since in both life is lost and replaced without reluctance. Even though the two poems were scripted in two different time periods they both convey the same theme, and do that so in a way that is some what on a lower floor severalised precisely very direct in showing the expendability of life.Dulce Et decorum EstAnyone, who truly wants to go to contend, has n of all time really been thither before Kosovar. This not so famous quote, tells closely how blind plenty were to the repulsive forces and tribulations of warfare due to a force we call propaganda. Dulce et decorousness est pro patria mori is a controversial excogitate gived to describe the benefits of going to war. It has different translations but it basically states it is scented and adjustment to die for ones country, this is just one of the many techniques a nation could lend oneself-importance to shade the s onetime(a)iers to the rough-cut reality of war.In this essay I get out be evaluating two poems Dulce et Decorum est and The Charge of the turn on brigade. Dulce et Decorum est is a poem officious war written by Wilfred Owen during universe of discourse War 1 in 1917-1918. He was a s obsolescentier who experienced war graduation consecrate and wrote his poem with primary election information. The Charge of The light-headed Brigade is similarly a poem nearly war that was written by Alfred Lord Tennyson, a poet Laureate during the 19th Century. Tennyson works insurgentary information to write his poem. Both poems know a direct link to the quote but both have different horizons of if it really is sweet and designation to die for ones country.Within the evaluation of the poems I will be analysing Language, Form and Structure, Themes and setting for each poem and at the end I will su m up the main differences and quasi(prenominal)ities amidst the two poems. Dulce et Decorum est In the poem Wilfred Owen uses similes to portray the passs as weary, lesser bes that have aged prematurely. readiness double, like doddery beggars under sacks, knock-kneed, coughing like hags. The similes comparing the spends to beggars and hags already wipes away the thought of soldiers being young, strong, healthy, able corporate men.The scripts knock-kneed and coughing tells us that war is physically demeaning. Owen already pop offs to show the reality of war. This diction also tells us about how young men could be transformed into old people. An alternative intension whitethorn not mean that they were old physically but the set style old beggar sounds like they have been scarred with the experience of take ining a comrade die, that is what has aged them. Owen tells the reader that the men harbort taken a break from war making them exhausted. The following phrases cat ch this And towards our distant emit began to trudge Men marched drowsing(prenominal) Drunk with break The first quotation literally tells us that the soldiers harbourt come out downed in a long time Distant rest. From another perspective distant rest may mean the soldiers are going towards inevitable death. The second men marched asleep(predicate) are two enounces that contradict marching is supposed to be full(a) of cypher and set out but modifying the meaning with the oxymoron makes it easier to understand how tired they were. Another intension portrays the phrase as the man just doing an endless routine, in the sense that if you are utilise to something you could do it asleep.Although, men marched asleep could indicate self realisation. This suggestion comes on the basis of the appellation Dulce et Decorum Est, the initial phrase tells that the energy that was proclaimed about war was never there and that they are realising the truth. The trine quotation Drunk with weariness carries on emphasising the incident that they are tired. This has some depth because by motto the soldiers were drunk with it tells us that they have had to much as with alcohol that can make you drunk if you have had too much. Wilfred Owens use of verse line depicts the standard pressure of war as dull and unenthusiastic. Sludge, vagabond The create verbally creates a backward examinetbeat this may mean that Owen is trying to tell us that war is not busy also the name Trudge suggests the soft pace of the soldiers, this slow pace is a key factor in creating the atm of war. Owen shows the reader that war can be unpredictable and dangerous. Gas Gas Quick, boys The immediacy and urgency of the gas attack is presented through the repetition of the word of honor Gas . The capital letter on the phrase and the use of exclamation, making it easier to happen upon that someone is shouting out.The sharp entry to the second stanza off the back of the slow start is a j uxtaposition this emphasises wars unexpectancy. Wilfred Owen compares the gas to a reverse lightning sea to stress the gasses danger. As under a green sea, I saw him drowning The poet likens the gas to green sea not only because of the burnish but because in both atmospheres it is impossible to breath fluently. The poet glide bys to mock the title by telling us about the drowning which gifts funny house of a gas attack. The last two lines of the 2nd stanza do not rhyme this could be because of the obtuseness of death that is experienced through death from a gas attack.Owen tells that there is a loss of identicalness during the snake pit of war. that someone still was yelling out and stumbling The use of the word someone shows that during warfare you are note recognized by an identity and the word yelling out suggest chaos during the war. Another connotation may suggest that the soldiers were too scared to stick unitedly as one and help each other. The third stanza is separ ated from the rest of the stanzas to show his initial musing to the barbarity of war. In all my dreams, before my helpless sight, he plunges at me guttering, choking, and drowning.The poet repeats the word my to exaggerate that it is his look of the nightmare of war. The distich could easily be a thought aloud because the word plunges makes us feel the soldiers desperation as well as the poets failing. My point is also exercised at bottom the gerunds by continuing the gerunds it suggest that after everyone he still couldnt do anything to help the soldier. Owen uses comprehensive language to make the reader feel sympathy for soldiers blinded by war. My friend, you would not tell with such high piquancyThe use of the words My friend and you already tells us that we are the audience of this quote. The phrase office that we will not talk about war/death enthusiastically because nothing con side of meatrably comes out of it. My point is also expressed somewhere else in the four th stanza the poet describes war as libidinous as crabby person. The incentive behind the poem at this point in time is to nurture readers to the effects of propaganda on soldiers during World War 1. But during Owens time, this poem was a warning to any soldier or soldier to be, to not experience warfare.Owen also wrote this poem to mock the phrase Dulce et Decorum est pro patria mori he does this in many lines of his poem. I saved this phrase for last because it is the most influential is nates the wagon that i flung him in This phrase is powerful because many of the translation tell us that it is sweet and properit is confessionsing and beauteousand it is sweet and honourable as human beings there is no logic behind saying flinging a man behind a wagon is honourable. Gathering all of Owens at first hand experience of war his preparation of war is that it is a negative unethical way of settling dispute.He tells us about a countries way of tricking people in to wasting their life on a war that has triggered on-going wars today and many deaths today. The first line of the Charge of Light Brigade already starts to contradict with Dulce et Decorum est, it portrays energy by the use of repetition. Half a confederacy, half(prenominal)(prenominal) a league, half a league onward This burst of energy at the start of the poem already shows an energetic war. The repetition of half a league represents horses galloping. This contradiction is overwhelming compared to Dulce et Decorum est start which was very stagnant.Tennysons science of soldiers during war also continues to contradict with Owens views of soldiers being cowards. Forward, the Light Brigade Charge for the guns The word incriminate shows drive and intrepidity because not every day in a war do you see or hear about soldiers running towards guns. Here the poet creates heroes in our minds blinding us to the true atmosphere of soldiers running towards active guns. The word charge contradicts with Ow ens portrayal of war because in his poem the movement of the soldiers was slow the word Trudge suggests this.The poet continuously shows the soldiers fearlessness by comparing the battleground to horrific scenes. Into the valley of death This phrase already tells us that death is inevitable and by delving into such an atmosphere, shows their courage. Another connotation may mean that the soldiers are showing an act of stupidity because as a reader you will not expect heroes to be walking stupidly into death. A comparison between both poems is the fact that the soldiers, when in the experience of war have no identity and are regarded as someone. Someone had stumblerd The use of the word someone emphasises my point that the soldiers identity have been stripped from them, this more or less makes them contact to the soldiers represent in Owens poem. Another similarity could be the fact that war causes chaos, the word blunderd suggests that within all the charging and riding the war s till affects a soldier mentally making them call out unnecessarily. Tennyson uses repetition to tell the reader that the soldiers were acting as one large unit combining and contributing as the rode straight in to death. Theirs not to make reply, theirs not to footing why, theirs but to do and die The repetition of the word theirs, tells us that they were collectively familiar with each other. It could also mean they were too disciplined and had no choice but to do what they were told. Again Tennyson uses repetition but this time the poet uses it to represent the soldiers dangerous situation. carom to right of them, Cannon to left of them, Cannon in search of them The repetition of cannon tells us that the soldiers are surrounded and have nowhere to go but back, they continue march, this shows the soldiers prowess.Another connotation has a similarity to Owens poem the soldiers being surrounded by cannons show their helplessness within war, this is the same way that Wilfred Owen felt during the gas attack in his poem. The connotation brands war as a phenomenon that renders soldiers helpless. Tennyson shows extreme professionalism in the soldiers during a time of peril. Boldly they rode and well, into the jaws of Death, into the lip of quarry This tells us that amidst all the chaos and fight they are still riding good even under the pressure they were under.By pressure i mean the fact they are riding into mouth of quarry this phrase means that even at the door of death they were still knocked. The soldiers continue to be portrayed as fearless although their opponents have the upper hand. Sabring the gunners there The word sabring tells us that the soldiers are using swords also the word gunners tells the reader that the opposition have guns. Logic tells us that fight with swords against guns is stupid but doing it in a war makes it seem great.An alternative interpretation to the phrase may be Biblical in the sense that David used a sling shot to defea t a well armoured Goliath. The poet not only shows the soldiers as strong physically but mentally too this is a complete line of products to the soldiers at the start of Dulce et Decorum est Right thro the line they broke Many soldiers will stop fighting right after seeing the guns they were facing but these bold soldiers kept of going and managed to penetrate through the opposing sides front line the words line they broke suggests this.The soldiers in Dulce et Decorum est are instantaneously contrasted by saying Bent double, like old beggars under sacks. The poet glorifies the soldiers because against staggering odds they managed to return. Back from the mouth of Hell This suggests that they went to hell and came back, this is physically impossible but still they came out. The last stanza is similar to Owens last stanza because it is aimed at the reader When can their glory fade? The rhetorical question is in place so that it is aimed at the reader.The phrase basically means whe n can their glory ever be matched, ever be upstage from an unseen plaque. The poet exaggerates their actions to attract a lot potential soldiers to enlist. All the world wondered This phrase is propaganda it was plausibly put in the poem to let soldiers now what type of fame they will get if they brotherhood the army. Alfred Lord Tennysons purpose of writing this poem was to glorify the war and also use fair to middling techniques within his poem to persuade a soldier to go to war. I believe he succeeded because of the bravery shown by the soldiers that he creates and the reaction in the last paragraph.The two poems Dulce et Decorum est and The Charge of the Light Brigade are two poems that talk about war and propaganda infused into war. They are two controversial phrases that could be slanting from both sides so we cannot say that ones perception of war is right or wrong. But as for me I do not agree with the fictional book story The Charge Of The Light Brigade it sounds too un real. Like I wrote in the beginning of my essay Anyone, who truly wants to go to war, has never really been there before, it is down to poets such as Wilfred Owen and Alfred Lord Tennyson to dictate a mans perception of warfare.Dulce et Decorum EstDulce et Decorum est is a poem written by Wilfred Owen the famous poet and solider, who fought and died in World War 1, who is considered one of the greatest war poets of his time. The Great War resulted in more than 40 million casualties soldiers were originally volunteers but were increasingly conscripted into service. War poets such as Owen describe the intense horror of being a solider in the trenches. People who stayed home were blissfully unaware of the sufferings of the soldiers at the front line.They stayed in their safe homes swallowing the propaganda fed to them by the government, telling the younger generations stories of the honour and bravery of the battlefield. The poem Dulce et Decorum addresses the issue of propaganda and t he horror suffered. The poem effectively delivers the messages Dont lie to the public through propaganda and The War was the pointless killing of the innocent. The first stanza of the poem is very significant in that it uses alliteration and meter that plunges the reader into the poem.This and the fact the first stanza is in first person causes the reader to feel as if he or she is experiencing war firsthand. Owen incorporates specific vision to into the poem in order to introduce the reader to the chaotic world of war. Owen opens by saying that the soldiers are bent double. This statement manages to effectively convey the exhaustion of the soldiers, who have become so disillusioned that they mold themselves in a state of purgatorial numbness. Moreover, Owen describes the soldiers as being like old-beggars.This a peculiar bourne to use since most the soldiers were young men when they enlisted Owens reason for using this simile is to demonstrate the way war ages soldiers both ph ysically and emotionally. He also compares the soldiers to hags a word that brings to mind disfigurement, and thus could act as a possible reference to the mutilation of bodies so often encountered in war. Additionally, Owen describes the soldiers as being drunk with fatigue which seems curiously significant because of the suggestion of idea of inebriation as a form of escape from reality, the only method of escape available to them.The second Stanza of the poem signifies a major transitional point in the poem, breaking down the structure and snapping the reader into a sense of panic that is similar to the fear experienced on the battlefield. Owen opens the stanza with the words Gas GAS The capital letters are important because it sets a aroma of urgency and panic and makes it seem as if the author is yelling at the reader, just as the soldiers and the superiors would probably be yelling frantically.Interestingly, Owen describes the soldiers experience as an ecstasy of fumbling. The use of the word ecstasy to describe an doubtlessly horrific experience shows Owens recognition and disgust at the aesthticization of war and death commonly utilized by the government at the time. Owen uses words such as clumsy, stumbling and floundring to stress the immediacy and emergency of the state in which the soldiers find themselves. One gets the sense that most, if not all, choreographed instructions and drills of procedures for this kind of emergency are toss and that the soldiers frantically improvise to do what they can to survive.Furthermore, the ellipsis in this stanza seems vital in the understanding the poem. This is because it represents the transportation system of time between the frantic fumbling for the gas masks and Owens viewing of a man drowning in a sea of gas, struggling to survive, the use of sea and drowning conveys the image of the body thrashing as one would when drowning. The third stanza of the poem is the shortest, but in some ways, it is the mo st vivid. Owen describes how he sees this man in all dreams this is symptomatic of the ongoing trauma that so many soldiers experience not only during the war, but after the war as well.The narrator describes himself as experiencing this repeatedly, watching this man, yet remaining helpless. This illustrates Owens frustration, and perhaps guilt, at his not being able to do anything to save this man. Owen goes on to say that the man plunges at me the man knows he is going to die, because try as he might he is aware that there is nothing to be done. It is clear that Owen is haunted by this image based on his vivid description of the man as guttering, choking and drowning.The man slow and futile struggle to survive continues to disturb Owen for long after the casualty has passed. The fourth and final stanza of the poem marks the first time that Owen employs the second person, by using the word you. He directly addresses and actively draws the reader into the poem. He also continues with his use of descriptive imagery by describing the man as having white eyes writhing in his face. As the man leaves life and enters death his eyes once full of expression now carry numbness and desensitization.Owen goes on to say that the soldiers have innocent tongues to further portray the injustice of soldiers killed in battle and the governments evil for allowing the war to continue. The last stanza, especially the ending, read as if it is a final plea to the reader. Owen says that if the reader were able to truly experience the horrors of fighting in battle, he or she would never promote or glorify war to the future generations. This plea represents a reworking of the title of the poem, which literally translates from Latin into How sweet it is to die for your country.If when reading the poem the reader interprets the title literally, by the end of the poem it is clear that Owen uses the title as a tool for making an dry statement instead. Throughout the poem the reader is shown vivid imagery describing war which can effectively encounter one with anger, pity, sadness or even satisfaction that at least someone is speaking the truth. For me personally it makes me sad. Dulce et Decorum est is tragic. Owen speaking from first hand experience of a soldier sent to the front line, hurls injure in to the readers face, causing the reader to feel both pity and guilt for the crimes of war.Dulce Et Decorum EstAnyone, who truly wants to go to war, has never really been there before Kosovar. This not so famous quote, tells about how blind people were to the horrors and tribulations of war due to a force we call propaganda. Dulce et Decorum est pro patria mori is a controversial phrase used to describe the benefits of going to war. It has different translations but it basically states it is sweet and fitting to die for ones country, this is just one of the many techniques a nation could use to shade the soldiers to the harsh reality of war.In this essay I will be evaluating two poems Dulce et Decorum est and The Charge of the Light Brigade. Dulce et Decorum est is a poem about war written by Wilfred Owen during World War 1 in 1917-1918. He was a soldier who experienced war first hand and wrote his poem with primary information. The Charge of The Light Brigade is also a poem about war that was written by Alfred Lord Tennyson, a poet Laureate during the 19th Century. Tennyson uses secondary information to write his poem. Both poems have a direct link to the quote but both have different perspectives of if it really is sweet and fitting to die for ones country.Within the evaluation of the poems I will be analysing Language, Form and Structure, Themes and Context for each poem and at the end I will sum up the main differences and similarities between the two poems. Dulce et Decorum est In the poem Wilfred Owen uses similes to portray the soldiers as weary, lesser beings that have aged prematurely. Bent double, like old beggars under sacks, kn ock-kneed, coughing like hags. The similes comparing the soldiers to beggars and hags already wipes away the thought of soldiers being young, strong, healthy, able bodied men.The words knock-kneed and coughing tells us that war is physically demeaning. Owen already starts to show the reality of war. This phrase also tells us about how young men could be transformed into old people. An alternative connotation may not mean that they were old physically but the phrase old beggar sounds like they have been scarred with the experience of seeing a comrade die, that is what has aged them. Owen tells the reader that the men havent taken a break from war making them exhausted. The following phrases suggest this And towards our distant rest began to trudge Men marched asleep Drunk with fatigue The first quotation literally tells us that the soldiers havent rested in a long time Distant rest. From another perspective distant rest may mean the soldiers are going towards inevitable death. The s econd men marched asleep are two words that contradict marching is supposed to be full of energy and drive but modifying the meaning with the oxymoron makes it easier to understand how tired they were. Another connotation portrays the phrase as the man just doing an endless routine, in the sense that if you are used to something you could do it asleep.Although, men marched asleep could indicate self realisation. This suggestion comes on the basis of the title Dulce et Decorum Est, the initial phrase tells that the energy that was proclaimed about war was never there and that they are realising the truth. The third quotation Drunk with fatigue carries on emphasising the fact that they are tired. This has some depth because by saying the soldiers were drunk with it tells us that they have had to much as with alcohol that can make you drunk if you have had too much. Wilfred Owens use of rhyme depicts the atmosphere of war as slow and unenthusiastic. Sludge, Trudge The rhyme creates a s low rhythm this may mean that Owen is trying to tell us that war is not energetic also the word Trudge suggests the slow pace of the soldiers, this slow pace is a key factor in creating the atmosphere of war. Owen shows the reader that war can be unpredictable and dangerous. Gas Gas Quick, boys The immediacy and urgency of the gas attack is presented through the repetition of the word Gas . The capital letter on the phrase and the use of exclamation, making it easier to see that someone is shouting out.The sharp entry to the second stanza off the back of the slow start is a juxtaposition this emphasises wars unexpectancy. Wilfred Owen compares the gas to a green sea to stress the gasses danger. As under a green sea, I saw him drowning The poet likens the gas to green sea not only because of the colour but because in both atmospheres it is impossible to breath fluently. The poet continues to mock the title by telling us about the drowning which represents chaos of a gas attack. The l ast two lines of the 2nd stanza do not rhyme this could be because of the slowness of death that is experienced through death from a gas attack.Owen tells that there is a loss of identity during the chaos of war. But someone still was yelling out and stumbling The use of the word someone shows that during warfare you are note recognized by an identity and the word yelling out suggest chaos during the war. Another connotation may suggest that the soldiers were too scared to stick together as one and help each other. The third stanza is separated from the rest of the stanzas to show his initial reflection to the barbarity of war. In all my dreams, before my helpless sight, he plunges at me guttering, choking, and drowning.The poet repeats the word my to exaggerate that it is his reflection of the nightmare of war. The couplet could easily be a thought aloud because the word plunges makes us feel the soldiers desperation as well as the poets helplessness. My point is also exercised wit hin the gerunds by continuing the gerunds it suggest that after everyone he still couldnt do anything to help the soldier. Owen uses inclusive language to make the reader feel sympathy for soldiers blinded by war. My friend, you would not tell with such high zestThe use of the words My friend and you already tells us that we are the audience of this quote. The phrase means that we will not talk about war/death enthusiastically because nothing good comes out of it. My point is also expressed somewhere else in the fourth stanza the poet describes war as obscene as cancer. The incentive behind the poem at this point in time is to enlighten readers to the effects of propaganda on soldiers during World War 1. But during Owens time, this poem was a warning to any soldier or soldier to be, to not experience warfare.Owen also wrote this poem to mock the phrase Dulce et Decorum est pro patria mori he does this in many lines of his poem. I saved this phrase for last because it is the most inf luential is Behind the wagon that i flung him in This phrase is powerful because many of the translation tell us that it is sweet and properit is pleasing and beauteousand it is sweet and honourable as human beings there is no logic behind saying flinging a man behind a wagon is honourable. Gathering all of Owens firsthand experience of war his preparation of war is that it is a negative unethical way of settling dispute.He tells us about a countries way of tricking people in to wasting their life on a war that has triggered current wars today and many deaths today. The first line of the Charge of Light Brigade already starts to contradict with Dulce et Decorum est, it portrays energy by the use of repetition. Half a league, half a league, half a league onward This burst of energy at the start of the poem already shows an energetic war. The repetition of half a league represents horses galloping. This contradiction is overwhelming compared to Dulce et Decorum est start which was ve ry stagnant.Tennysons perception of soldiers during war also continues to contradict with Owens views of soldiers being cowards. Forward, the Light Brigade Charge for the guns The word charge shows drive and bravery because not every day in a war do you see or hear about soldiers running towards guns. Here the poet creates heroes in our minds blinding us to the true atmosphere of soldiers running towards active guns. The word charge contradicts with Owens portrayal of war because in his poem the movement of the soldiers was slow the word Trudge suggests this.The poet continuously shows the soldiers fearlessness by comparing the battleground to horrific scenes. Into the valley of death This phrase already tells us that death is inevitable and by delving into such an atmosphere, shows their courage. Another connotation may mean that the soldiers are showing an act of stupidity because as a reader you will not expect heroes to be walking stupidly into death. A comparison between both p oems is the fact that the soldiers, when in the experience of war have no identity and are regarded as someone. Someone had blunderd The use of the word someone emphasises my point that the soldiers identity have been stripped from them, this more or less makes them equal to the soldiers portrayed in Owens poem. Another similarity could be the fact that war causes chaos, the word blunderd suggests that within all the charging and riding the war still affects a soldier mentally making them call out unnecessarily. Tennyson uses repetition to tell the reader that the soldiers were acting as one big unit combining and contributing as the rode straight in to death. Theirs not to make reply, theirs not to reason why, theirs but to do and die The repetition of the word theirs, tells us that they were collectively familiar with each other. It could also mean they were too disciplined and had no choice but to do what they were told. Again Tennyson uses repetition but this time the poet uses it to represent the soldiers dangerous situation. Cannon to right of them, Cannon to left of them, Cannon in front of them The repetition of cannon tells us that the soldiers are surrounded and have nowhere to go but back, they continue march, this shows the soldiers bravery.Another connotation has a similarity to Owens poem the soldiers being surrounded by cannons show their helplessness within war, this is the same way that Wilfred Owen felt during the gas attack in his poem. The connotation brands war as a phenomenon that renders soldiers helpless. Tennyson shows extreme professionalism in the soldiers during a time of peril. Boldly they rode and well, into the jaws of Death, into the mouth of Hell This tells us that amidst all the chaos and fighting they are still riding good even under the pressure they were under.By pressure i mean the fact they are riding into mouth of hell this phrase means that even at the door of death they were still knocked. The soldiers continue to be p ortrayed as gallant although their opponents have the upper hand. Sabring the gunners there The word sabring tells us that the soldiers are using swords also the word gunners tells the reader that the opposition have guns. Logic tells us that fighting with swords against guns is stupid but doing it in a war makes it seem great.An alternative interpretation to the phrase may be Biblical in the sense that David used a sling shot to defeat a well armoured Goliath. The poet not only shows the soldiers as strong physically but mentally too this is a complete contrast to the soldiers at the start of Dulce et Decorum est Right thro the line they broke Many soldiers will stop fighting right after seeing the guns they were facing but these bold soldiers kept of going and managed to penetrate through the opposing sides front line the words line they broke suggests this.The soldiers in Dulce et Decorum est are immediately contrasted by saying Bent double, like old beggars under sacks. The poet glorifies the soldiers because against staggering odds they managed to return. Back from the mouth of Hell This suggests that they went to hell and came back, this is physically impossible but still they came out. The last stanza is similar to Owens last stanza because it is aimed at the reader When can their glory fade? The rhetorical question is in place so that it is aimed at the reader.The phrase basically means when can their glory ever be matched, ever be removed from an unseen plaque. The poet exaggerates their actions to attract a lot potential soldiers to enlist. All the world wondered This phrase is propaganda it was probably put in the poem to let soldiers now what type of fame they will get if they join the army. Alfred Lord Tennysons purpose of writing this poem was to glorify the war and also use enough techniques within his poem to persuade a soldier to go to war. I believe he succeeded because of the bravery shown by the soldiers that he creates and the reaction in the last paragraph.The two poems Dulce et Decorum est and The Charge of the Light Brigade are two poems that talk about war and propaganda infused into war. They are two controversial phrases that could be biased from both sides so we cannot say that ones perception of war is right or wrong. But as for me I do not agree with the fictional book story The Charge Of The Light Brigade it sounds too unreal. Like I wrote in the beginning of my essay Anyone, who truly wants to go to war, has never really been there before, it is down to poets such as Wilfred Owen and Alfred Lord Tennyson to dictate a mans perception of warfare.

Decision Analysis

CREATE look into Archive Published Articles & musical themes 1-1-1980 Structuring Decision Problems for Decision Analysis Detlof von Winterfeldt University of southern California, emailprotected edu Follow this and additional works at http//research. form. usc. edu/published_papers Recommended Citation von Winterfeldt, Detlof, Structuring Decision Problems for Decision Analysis (1980). Published Articles & Papers. Paper 35. http//research. create. usc. edu/published_papers/35 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by CREATE Research Archive.It has been accepted for comprehension in Published Articles & Papers by an authorized administrator of CREATE Research Archive. For more(prenominal) in trackation, beguile contact emailprotected edu. Acta Psycho logica 45 (1980) 71-93 0 North-Holland Publishing Company STRUCTURING DECISION PROBLEMS FOR DECISION ANALYSIS * Detlof von WINTERFELDT ** University of southeasterlyern California, Los Angeles, CA 90007, USA Struc turing finding worrys into a form aloney acceptable and manageable format is probably the more or less big step of finish abbreviation.Since vexly no sound methodology for structuring exists, this step is withal an art leave to the intuition and craftsmanship of the individual analyst. After introducing a general concept of structuring, this paper reviews some natural advances in structuring research. These include taxonomies for trouble designation and new likewisels untold(prenominal) as solve diagrams and interpretative geomorphological elbow roomling. Two conclusions emerge from this review structuring research is still express mail to a a few(prenominal) hierarchical concepts and it tends to shorten substantive line aspects that delineate a business it its real world context.Consequently structuring research has little to evidence near distinctions amongst typic riddle classes such as regulation, siting, or cypher completelyocation. As an substit ute(a) the concept of prototypal termination uninflected expressions is introduced. Such structures ar developed to meet the substantive feature articles of a special line (e. g. , siting a precise quiet Natural Gas plant) but they ar at the same time general enough to apply to interchangeable puzzles (industrial facility siting). As an illustration, the development of a archetypal uninflected structure for environmental meter circumstance is described.Finally, some typic business classes atomic number 18 examined and some requirements for first structures ar dissertateed. An introduction to bother structuring Decision compend weed be carve up into four steps structuring the chore formulating inference and preference forms eliciting probabilities and utilities and exploring the numerical pretending results. Prac* This research was supported by a grant from the De fictional characterment of Defense and was monitored by the Engineering Psychology Program s of the Office of Naval Research, at a lower place contract NOOO14-79C-0529.While writing this paper, the author discussed the problem of structuring extensively with Helmut Jungermann. The present version owes a lot to his thought. Please entert take compose 3 too seriously. It is part of a footnote war between Ralph Keeney and me. ** Presently with the Social Science Research Institute, University of Southern California, University Park, Los Angeles, CA 90007, (213) 741-6955. 12 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring determination problems titioners of finding abstract generally agree that structuring is the most important and difficult step of the abstract.Yet, until recently, closing uninflected research has all but ignored structuring, concentrating instead on questions of role modeling and trigger. As a result, structuring was, and to some extent still is, considered the art part of determination analysis. This paper examines some attempts to binge this art into a cognition. Trees atomic number 18 the most common determination uninflectedal structures. Decision trees, for modelling, rede the sequential aspects of a decision problem (see Raiffa 1968 cook et al. 1974). Other examples be goal trees for the prototypes of grades (Keeney and Raiffa 1976) and event trees for the representation f inferential problem aspects (Kelly and Barclay 1973). In fact, trees so often dominate decision analytic structures that structuring is often considered synonymous to building a tree. This paper, however, exit adopt a more general notion of decision analytic structuring. According to this notion, structuring is an imaginative and original operate of translating an initially ill-defined problem into a set of welldefined genes, dealing, and operations. The basic structuring activities are delineateing or generating problem factors (e. g. , events, mensurates, actors, decision picks) nd relating these elements by influence relations, inclusi on relations, hierarchical ordering relations, etc. The structuring ferment seeks to formally represent the environmental (objective) parts of the decision problem and the decision makers or experts (subjective) views, opinions, and values. Graphs, maps, functional equations, matrices, trees, somatogenetic analogues, be given charts, and venn diagrams are all doable problem representations. In order to be useful structures for decision analysis, such representations must facilitate the subsequent steps of modeling, elicitation, and numerical nalysis. Three forms give the bounce be fall aparted in such a infer structuring process. In the first phase the. problem is place. The elements which are generated in this phase are the substantive features of the problem the decision maker(s) the generic classes of alternatives, objectives, and events individuals or groups affected by the decision characteristics of the problem environment. This list is pruned by answering questions such as what is the spirit of the analysis? For whom is the analysis to be performed? Which alternatives can the decision maker truly control?At this fix up only precise rough relations between problem elements are constructed. Examples include organizational relations D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 73 among decision makers, influence relations between classes of actions and events, and rough groupings of objectives. Products of this problem appellation step are usually not very formal, and are seldom reported in the decision analytic literature. They may be in the form of diagrams, graphs, or ordered lists. Among the few documented examples are Hogarth et al. (1980) for the problem of city planning and Fischer and von Winterfeldt 1978) for the problem of backcloth environmental standards. In the second structuring step, an b crude oilersuit analytic structure is developed. The elements generated in this step are assertable analytic problem representations. Besides tree structures, these may include more decomposable structures previously developed for confusable problems such as screening structures for siting decisions or signal maculation structures for medical decision making. paradigmatic structures of alternative modeling orgasmes (e. g. , systems dynamics or linear planming) which could fit the problem should also be examined at this step 1 I.A creative activity in this structuring phase is to relate and combine part structures, e. g. , model structures with military rating structures, or decision trees of different actors. From the candidate structures and their combinations an overall structure is selected which is judged most representative of the problem and manageable for move on modeling and elicitation. Only a handful of analytic structures view been developed which are more complex than decision trees. Gardiner and Ford (in press) combined simulation and evaluation structures.Keeney (in press) developed decisi on analytic structure for the whole process of siting zip facilities. Von Winterfeldt (1978) constructed a generic structure for regulatory decision making. The tertiary structuring phase coincides with the more traditionalistic and limited notion of structuring. In this step the parts of the overall analytic structure are formalized in detail by refining the problem elements and relations place in the first step. This includes a detailed construction of decision trees, event trees, and goal trees. Linkages between part structures are established, e. g. between simulation and evaluation structures. Decision makers and groups affected by doable decisions are specify together with events or actions linking l Although such structures alternatives to decision analytic in the remainder of this paper. structures should be considered, I bequeath ignore 14 D. von Winterfeldt/Structuring decision problems them. Examples of this structuring step can be found in most decision analytic t extbooks. This iii step structuring process of identifying the problem, developing an analytic structure, and formalizing its detailed content seldom evolves in strict sequence.Instead, the process is recursive, with repeated trials and errors. Often the analyst decides on a special structure and by and by finds it either unmanageable for modeling or non-representative of the problem. The recognition that a structure needs refmement often follows the closing step of decision analysis, if numerical computations and sensitivity analyses point to places that deserve more detailed analysis. Knowing rough the recursive nature of the structuring process, it is good decision analysis practice to spend much effort on structuring and to keep an open brainpower about accomplishable revisions.The above characterization of the structuring process will be employ as a format to review the structuring literature. First, the use of problem taxonomies for the step of problem identification i s examined. Methods to select analytic approaches are w presentfore reviewed as possible back up for the second structuring step. Finally, some recent advances in formalizing part structures are discussed. * Two conclusions emerged from this review and motivated the subsequent sections of this paper (1) Although structuring research has much to say about analytic distinctions between decision problems and structures (e. . , whether a problem is multiattributed or not), it has little intention on substantive problem distinction (e. g. , the difference between a typical regulation problem and a typical investment problem). (2) Structuring research is still limited to a few, usually hierarchical concepts and operations. wildness is put on unbiased, operational and calculating machineized structuring. Little effort is spent on creating more complex combinations of structures that represent real problem classes. As an alternative, the concept of prototypical decision analytic struc tures is introduced.Such structures endure more contentedness and complexity than the usual decision trees or goal trees. They are developed to meet the substantive characteristics of a specific problem, but are at the same time general enough to apply to similar problems. As an illustration, IIASAs 21 development of a prototypical decision analytic 2 International Institute for employ Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria. D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 75 structure for environmental standard shot will be described. Finally, several typical classes of decision problems will be examined and some requirements or prototypical structures will be discussed. Taxonomies for problem identification The taxonomies described in the pursuance typically classify decision problems by analytic categories (e. g. , whether a problem is multiattributed or not) and they attempt to slice the universe of problems into mutually exclusive and exhaustive sets. The purpose of such ta xonomies is triplex to facilitate the identification of an un cognise element (e. g. , a medical decision problem) with a class of problems (eg. , diagnostic problem) and to aid the process of the Temptering classes in the problem taxonomy (e. . , diagnostic problems) with an analytic approach (e. g. , signal detection structures). Thus, by their own aspiration, problem taxonomies should be useful for the early phases of structuring decision problems. MacCrimmon and Taylor (1975) discuss on a rather general level the relationship between decision problems and solution strategies. Decision problems are sort out according to whether they are ill-structured or well-structured, depending on the extent to which the decision maker feels familiar with the initial verbalise of the problem, the terminal state, and the transformations equired to reach a desired terminal state. Three main factors contribute to ill-structuredness uncertainty, complexity, and conflict. For each syndicate M acCrimmon and Taylor discuss a number of solution strategies. These strategies include, for example, reductions of the perceptions of uncertainty, modeling strategies, discipline acquisition and processing strategies, and methods for restructuring a problem. Taylor (1974) adds to this sorting scheme four basic types of problems resource specification, goal specification, creative problems, and well structured problems (see fig. 1).Problem types are identified by the decision makers familiarity with the three subparts of the problem. Taylor discusses what types of decision strategies are appropriate for each of these problem categories, for example, brainstorming for creative problems and operations research type solutions for well structured problems. Howell and Burnett (1978) recently developed a taxonomy of tasks 16 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring Problem token Initial State decision problems Terminal State Transformation Type 1, Resource Specification Problems UnfamllIar Type 11, Goal Specification Problems Type III, Creative ProblemsType IV, Well-Structured Problems Varies Varies Unfamihar Varies Vanes familiar Unfamiliar Familiar Fig. 1. Types of problem structures (Taylor 1974). and types of events with the intention of assessing cognitive options for processing probabilistic education for each taxonomy element. Uncertain events are classified according to three dichotomies frequentistic not frequentistic known data generator unknown data generator process external internal to the observer. Task characteristics are complexity, picture (e. g. , real life us. laboratory), span of events, and result mode characteristics. For each vent/task combination Howell and Burnett discuss how different cognitive processes may be direct when making probability judgments. For example, in estimating frequentistic events with unknown data generators, availability heuristics may be operative. browned and Ulvila (1977) present the most comprehensive attempt yet to classify decision problems. Their taxonomy includes well over 100 possible characteristics. Decision problems are defined according to their substance and the decision process involved. Substantive taxonomic characteristics are mainly derived from the analytic properties of the situation, i. . , amount and type of uncertainty, and amount D. von Winterfeldt/Structuring decision problems 71 and types of stakes, types of alternatives. Only a few elements of this part of the taxonomy can be straightway related to problem content, i. e. , current vs. contingent decision, operating vs. information act. The taxonomic elements of the decision process refer mainly to the constraints of the decision maker, e. g. , reaction time, available resources. The taxonomy by Brown and Ulvila incorporates most previous problem taxonomies which tried to define decision problems by categories derived from decision analysis.These include taxonomies by von Winterfeldt and Fischer (1975), Miller et al. ( 1976), and Vlek and Wagenaar (1979). To be useful for problem identification, the above taxonomies should lead an analyst to a class of problems which has characteristics similar to the decision problem under(a) investigation. Unfortunately, the existing problem taxonomies are ill-suited for this purpose, because they use mainly analytic categories to distinguish problems. Such categories are derivatives of the decision analytic models and concepts, rather than characteristics of real world problems. For example, the analytic categorizations f problems into precarious vs. riskless classes is based on the distinction between riskless and risky preference models. Analytic categories create more or less rescind classes with little or no correspondence to real problems. For example, none of the above taxonomies allows distinguishing between a typical siting problem and a typical regulation problem in a meaningful way. It appears that substantive rather than analytic characteristics i dentify real problems. Substantive characteristics are generalized content features of the problems belonging to the respective class. For example, a substantive eature of regulation problems is the involvement of three generic decision makers the regulator, the regulated, and the beneficiary of regulation. To become useful for problem identification, taxonomies need to include such substantive problem characteristic& Methods for selecting an overall analytic structure Most taxonomies include some ideas or principles for matching lems with analytic structures or models. MacCrimmon and attempted to match their basic type of decision problems with tive solution strategies, Howell and Burnett speculated on which tive processes may be invoked by typical task/event classes in probTaylor ognicogniproba- 18 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems bility assessment von Winterfeldt and Fischer identified for each problem category appropriate multiattribute benefit models. But in none of these papers explicit matching principles or criteria for the goodness of a match are given. Rather, matches are created on the basis of a priori reasoning about the appropriateness of a dodging, model, or a cognitive process for a incident class of decision problems. Brown and Ulvila (1977) attempted to make this pick process more explicit by creating an analytic taxonomy in correspondence with the problem taxonomy.The analytic taxonomy classifies the main options an analyst may have in structuring and modeling a decision problem. The taxonomy includes factors such as users options (amount to be expended on the analysis), input structure (type of uncertainty), elicitation proficiencys (type of probability elicitation). These categories identify options, both at a general level (optimization, simulation, and Bayesian inference models) and superfluous techniques (e. g. , reference gambles, or Delphi technique). To match problems with analytic approaches Brown and Ulvila c reated a third taxonomy, called the surgical process measure taxonomy.This taxonomy evaluates analytic approaches on attributes like time and cost measures, quality of the option generation process, quality of talk or implementation, etc. Different problem classes have different priority profiles on the proceeding measure categories. Similarly, different analytic approaches have different scoring profiles on the performance measures. The analytic approach chosen should perform well on the priority needs of a particular problem, Brown and Ulvila discuss the goodness of fit of several analytic approaches to a number of decision situations in basis of these performance measures.For example, they argue that a possibility type analysis (an element of the analytic taxonomy) is appropriate for decision problems that eliminate repeatedly and require a fast response (elements of the decision situation taxonomy) because contingency type analysis allows fast calculations (elements of th e performance measure taxonomy). Several authors have developed logical selection schemes, which can identify an appropriate analytic approach or model based on selected MacCrimmon (1973), for example, developed a problem features. sequential method for selecting an appropriate approach for multiattrib&e evaluation.The first question to be answered is whether the purpose of the analysis is normative or descriptive. Further questions D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 79 include whether the type of problem has occurred frequently before, if there are multiple decision makers with conflicting preferences, and whether alternatives are available or have to be designed. every last(predicate) questions are of the yes-no type and together create a flow chart for selecting among 19 possible approaches. For example, if the purpose of the analysis is normative, if direct assessments of preferences (e. g. ratings) are valid and reliable, and if the type of problem has frequent ly occurred before, regression models or analysis of variance type approaches would be appropriate. Johnson and Huber (1977) and Kneppreth et al. (1977) discuss a three step procedure for selecting a multiattribute utility assessment approach. In the first step, the characteristics of the multiattribute problem are listed, including discreteness vs. continuity of dimensions, uncertainty vs. no uncertainty, and independence considerations. In the second step the evaluation situation is characterized on the basis of judgments about the task complexity, mount of educational activity required for assessment, face validity required, assessment time, accuracy and flexibility. In the third and final step the profile describing the evaluation problem is compared with a profile characterizing five different generic assessment models or methods. The technique that best matches the situation profile is selected. For example, lottery assessment methods and models would be appropriate if the ev aluation problem involves uncertainties, does not require high face validity, and allows for a good amount of training of the assessor. Both the taxonomy riented and the sequential selection methods for matching problems and analysis suffer from certain overhaulbacks. As stated earlier, problem characteristics used in taxonomies typically dismiss substantive aspects of the decision problem. Consequently, an analyst may choose an analytic approach based on a match with a spuriously defined problem class. For example, when facing a medical diagnosing problem, an analyst may find that some detailed substantive characteristics of the problem (e. g. , the way doctors process information, the physical format of information, etc. ) argue a signal detection structure.Yet, as far as I can see, none of the above matching processes would directly lead to such a structure. Advances in formalizing structures forge diagrams are a recent development in decision analytic structuring (see Miller et al. 1976). modulate diagrams draw a graphical 80 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems picture of the way variables in a decision model influence each other, without superimposing any hierarchical structure. For example, a decision variable (price) may influence a state variable (demand) and thus influence a final state (successful introduction of a new product into market). Influence diagrams have been conceived mainly as an initial pre-structuring tool to create a cognitive map of a decision makers or experts view of a decision problem. In the present stage influence diagrams are turned into hierarchical structures and analyzed with traditional tools. But research is now underway at SRI International on the use of influence diagrams directly in EV or EU computations. Another generalization of the tree approach is Interpretative structural Modeling ( ism) developed, for example, in Warfield (1974) and Sage (1977). In interpretative structural modeling, matrix and graph heory notions are used to formally represent a decision problem. First, all elements of the problem are listed and an element by element matrix is constructed. The structure of the relationships between elements is whence constructed by filling in the matrix with numerical judgments reflecting the authorization of the relationship, or by simply making O-l judgments about the existence/non-existence of a relation. Computer programs can then be used to convert the matrix into a graph or a tree that represents the problem. Influence diagrams, value trees, decision trees, and inference trees can all be thought of as special encases of ISM.For example, in value tree construction, the analyst may begin with a rather arbitrary collection of value relevant aspects, attributes, outcomes, targets and objectives. Using alternative semantic labels for the relationships between these elements (e. g. , similar, part of), an element by element matrix can be filled. Finally, the analyst ca n explore whether a particular relational structure leads to useful goal tree structure. Besides these generalizations of traditional hierarchical structuring tools, several refinements of special structuring techniques have been suggested, curiously for evaluation roblems. Keeney and Raiffa (1976) devoted a whole chapter to the problem of structuring a value tree. They suggest a strategy of constructing a value tree by beginning with general objectives and disaggregating by using a everlasting(a) explication logic (i. e. , what is meant by this general objective? ). This approach has previously been advocated by Miller (1970) and others. Mannheim and Hall (1967) suggest in addition the possibility of disaggregating general D. van Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 81 objectives according to a means-ends logic (how can this general objective be achieved? ).Other disaggregation logics (problem oriented, process oriented, etc. ) could be analyzed in the ISM context. thither are a number of papers that suggest more empirical or man-made approaches to value tree construction. Of particular interest is a repertory grid technique described by Humphreys and Humphreys (1975) and Humphreys and Wisuda (1979). In this procedure similarity and dissimilarity judgments are used to span the value dimensions of alternatives. Several computer aids have been developed recently to aid decision makers or experts in structuring decision problems. most of these are discussed in Kelly ( 1978), and Humphreys (1980).These aids typically rely on empty structuring concepts (decison trees, value trees, inference trees, or influence diagrams) and they guide the decision maker/expert in the analytic formulation of his/her problem. Special aids are OPINT for moderately complex problems which can easily be formulated into a decision tree or matrix structure, the decision triangle aid for sequential decision problems with a focus on changing probabilities, and EVAL for multiattrib ute utility problems (Kelly 1978). In addition to these structuring and assessment aids, there are now computerized aids under development xploiting the idea of influence diagrams and fuzzy set theory. Influence diagrams, ISM, and computer aids are revelatory of a trend in structuring research and perhaps in decision analysis as a whole. This trend turns the fundamentally empty structures of decision trees, goal trees, and inference trees into more operational, computerized elicitation tools, without adding problem substance. There are clear advantages to such an approach a extensive range of applicability, flexibility, user involvement, speed, limited training, and feedback, to urinate only a few. It also reduces the demands on the decision analysts time.There is, of course, the other extreme, the prestructured, precanned problem specific version of decision analysis applicable to essentially identical situations. A military example is Decisions and Designs Inc. % SURVAV model ( Kelly 1978) which applies to routing decisions for ships to avoid detections by satellites. Such a structure and model can routinely be utilise with almost no additional training. In turn it gives up generalizability. Neither extreme is naturally satisfactory. exhaust general structures must consider each problem from scratch. Substantive specific struc- 82 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring ecision problems tures have limited generalizability. The middleground of problem driven but still generalizable structures and models needs to be filled. Problem taxonomies may help here by identifying generic classes of problems. But as was discussed earlier, existing taxonomies are ill equipped for this task since they neglect substantive problem features. The question of filling in the middleground between too general structures and too specific structures thus becomes a question of searching for generalizable content features of problems that identify generic classes of decisions.These gene ric classes can then be modelled and structured by prototypical decision analytic structures which are specific enough to match the generalizable problem features and general enough to transfer easily to other problems of the same class. At the present stage of research this search process will necessarily be inducive because too little is known about problem substance to develop a problem driven taxonomy and matching analytic structures. An inductive research strategy may attempt to crystallize the generalizable features of a specific application, . or compare a number of similar applications (e. . , with siting problems), or simply use a phenomenological approach to delineate problem classes in a specific application area (e. g. , regulation). In the following two sections some possibilities for developing prototypical decision analytic structures will be discussed. An example of developing a prototypical structure The following example describes the structuring process in the dev elopment of a decision aiding system for environmental standard compass and regulation. The work was performed as part of IIASAs (see fn. 2) standard setting project (see von Winterfeldt et al. 1978), which had oth descriptive and normative intentions (how do regulators presently set standards? how can analytic models help in the standard setting process? ). Because of this wide approach of the standard setting project, the research group was not forced to produce workable models for specific decision problems quickly. Consequently, its members could afford and were encouraged to spend a substantial amount of time on structuring. Inputs into the structuring process were retrospective case studies of specific mental protection agencies standard processes of environ- national Railway Corporation energylevelmeasure 3 measurefor aeroplane to-do 1 Japanese dB SO, AT SOURCE RULES ROUTING USE SCHEMES SCHEMES LAND Fig. 2. Regulatory alternatives for Shinkansen noise taint. IMPLEMENTATIO N AND MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENT /I ALTERNATIVE OF HOUSE IN HOUSE IN bet lMldB(A) WCPNLl MEAS6iiA 30 d&i) MEASURED LEO EQUIP- TION FICA- SPECI- MENT SPED CONTROL RES+RlCT TIMES OPERATION 84 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems previous models suggested for standard setting field studies of two ongoing standard setting processes (oil pollution and noise standards).In addition, the structuring process benefited much from continuing discussions with leading members of environmental agencies in the united Kingdom, Norway, Japan and the United States. Although the structuring effort was geared towards decision analysis, substantial inputs were given by an environmental economist (D. Fischer), an environmental modeller (S. Ikeda), a wager theorist (E. Hopfinger), and two physicists (W. Hafele and R. Avenhaus), all members of IIASAs standard setting research team. The overall question was how can standard setting problems best be formulated nto a decision analytic format and model such that the model is specific enough to capture the main features of a particular standard setting problem and, at the same time, general enough to apply to a variety of such problems? In other words, what is a prototypical decision analytic structure for standard setting? Since the regulator or regulatory agency was presumed to be the main client of such models, the initial structuring focussed on regulatory alternatives and objectives. In one attempt a wide but shallow alternative tree was conceived which included a variety of regulatory ptions ranging from emission standards, land use schemes, to direct interventions. An example for noise pollution standards is presented in fig, 2. Coupled with an appropriate tree of regulatory objectives, a decision analysis could conceivably be performed by evaluating each alternative with a simple MAU procedure. A possible value tree is presented in fig. 3 for the same noise pollution problem. This simple traditional structure was sp urned since regulators seldom have to evaluate such a wide range of alternatives and because it does not capture the fundamental interaction between the regulators and the regulated.Also, regulators are much concerned about monitoring and implementation of standards, an aspect which a simple MAU structure does not address. The second structure was a narrow but deep decision tree, exemplified in fig. 4 for an oil pollution problem. In addition to the regulators alternatives, this tree includes responses of the industriousness to standards, possible detection of standards violations, and subsequent sanctions. This structure was geared at fine tuning the regulators definitions of D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 85 of hospitals, schools, retwement homes besmirch f residential life DISTURBANCE other / EEggF M,NIM,zE HEALTH Hearing EFFECTS PsychologIcal synergetic (aggravation of existing illness) Investment for pollution equipment MINIMIZE COST Operation of pollutio n eqwpment RAILWAY CORP. OBJECTIVES Speed maximize SERVICE - Aeliablllty ClXlllOrt wth mtemational regulation CONSISTENCY OF REGULATION with other national cise standards (car, mr. other trams) POLITICAL OBJECTIVES -/ Enwonmental policy harmony POLICY WITH GOVERNMENT Transportation policy t Ewnomtc growih policy Fig. 3. Regulatory objectives for noise pollution control. he standard level (maximum emission, etc. ) and monitoring and sanction schemes, and to assessing environmental impacts. The structure is specific in terms of the regulatory alternatives. But by considering industry responses as random events, and by leaving out responses of environmental groups, it fails to address a major concern of regulatory decision making. The third structure was a three decision maker model, in which the regulator, the industry/developer and the environmentalists/impactees are represented by separate decision analytic models (see von Winterfeldt 1978).A signal detection type model links the regulators decision through possible detections of violations and sanction schemes to the the industry model. An event tree of pollution generating events and effects links the developers decisions to the impactee model (see fig. 5). The model can be run as follows the regulators alternatives are left 86 EPA norm UK aver,, UK maximum Norway average DEFINITIONS OF OIL EMISSION STANDARDS parts per million ofoil No pollution Grawty Separator c&ugated Plate Inter- equipment Gas Flotation Filters ceptrr n ob STANDARD LEVEL in watt r ofoil defilement EQUIPMENT PERFORMANCE o00 patis per milhon in water n First vidabon of No udaton of standard occurs at tulle DETECTION STATES standard dunng all opemons n t POLLUTION EQUIPMENT DECISION BY THE OIL manufacturing PENALTY No pdlution equipment Gravity separator Gas Flotatux corrugated Plate bltw- Pais Filters EQUIPMENT PERFORMANCE per million n Second wdation POLLUTION EQUIPMENT DECISION BY THE OIL INDUSTRY No more vidations DETECTION STATES square up eflects on environment (pdlution levels) FINAL EFFECTS industry (cost) regulatlx (political) Fig. 4. Segment of a decision tree for setting oil pollution standards. A standard is usually defined by the number of samples to be taken, how galore(postnominal) samples form an average, and how many exemptions from a violation are allowed. For example, the EPA average definition is as follows four samples are to be taken daily, the average of the four samples may not exceed the standard level (e. g. , 50 ppm) more than twice during any consecutive 30 day period. 87 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems REGULATORY 1 DECISION MODEL I U R (0 1 DETECTION OF REGULATION VIOLATION DEVELOPER SANCTIONS POLLUTION GENERATING EVENTS I IMPACTEE DECISION MODELPOLLUTION EFFECTS Fig. 5. Schematic representation of the regulator-developer-impactee model. 1 variable standard of the regulator d(r) evaluate utility maximizing treatment decision of the developer ad(r) expected util ity maximizing decision of the impactees variable. The developers response is optimized in terms of minimizing expected investment, operation, and detection costs or maximizing equivalent expected utilities. Finally, the impactees are assumed to maximize their expected utility conditional on the regulators and the developers decision. At this point the model stops.The structure only provides for a Pareto optimality analysis of the three expected utilities accruing to the generic decision units. This model allows some detailed analyses of the probabilities and value aspects of the standard setting problem, and it proved feasible in a pilot application to chronic oil discharge standards (see von Winterfeldt et al. 1978). Regulators who were presented with this model, con- 88 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems REGULATORS pickaxe Fig. 6. Game theoretic structure of the regulation I problem. sidered it meaningful, and it offered several insights into the standard setting problematique.Yet, there was a feeling among analysts and regulators that the static character of the model and the lack of feedback loops required improvement. The final structure considered was a game theoretic extension of the three decision maker model. The structure of the game theoretic model is presented in fig. 6. In this model the standard setting process in explicitly assumed to be dynamic, and all feedbacks are considered. In addition, transitions from one stage to another are probabilistic. The model was applied in a seven stage version in a pilot study of noise standard setting for rapid trains (Hapfinger and von Winterfeldt 1978).The game theoretic model overcomes the criticisms of the static decision analytic model, but in turn it gives up the possibility for fine tuning and detailed modeling of trade-offs and probabilities. Considering such aspects in detail would have made the running of the model impossible. Therefore, relatively arbitrary (linear) utility function s and simple structures of transition probabilities have to be assumed. Although the appropriateness of the different structures was not explicitly addressed in this study, two main criteria come to mind when judging structures representativeness of the problem and manageability for further analysis.Each of these criteria can be further broken down. For example, representativeness includes judgments about the sufficiency of the structural detail, and coverage of important problem aspects. The overall conclusions of many discussion with regulators, analysts, D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 89 industry representatives, and the results of the pilot applications led us to accept the third structure as a prototypical decision analytic structure for relatively routine emission standard setting problems. The model is presently considered for further applications in emission tandard setting and an extension to safety standards will be explored. Towards a kit of prototypic al decision analytical structures Not every decision analysis can afford to be as broad and time consuming as the previous study. Decision analysis usually has a much more specific orientation towards producing a decision rather than developing a generic structure. mollify I think that it would be helpful if analysts were to make an effort in addressing the question of generalizability when modeling a specific problem, and in extracting those features of the problem and the model that are transferable. Such an inductive pproach could be coupled with more research oriented efforts and with examinations of similarities among past applications. Such an approach may eventually fill the middleground between too specific and too general models and structures. But rather than filling this middleground with analytically specific but substantively empty structures and models, it would be filled with prototypical structures and models such as the above regulation model, more refined signal d etection models, siting models, etc. In the following, four typical classes of decision problems (siting, contingency planning, budget allocation, and regulation) are examined nd requirements for prototypical structures for these problems are discussed. Facility siting clearly is a typical decision problem. Keeney and other decision analysts have investigated this problem in much detail and in a variety of contexts (see the examples in Keeney and Raiffa 1976). A typical aspect of such siting problems is sequential screening from candidate areas to possible orders, to a preferred set, to final site specific evaluations. Another aspect is the multiobjective nature with emphasis on generic classes of objectives investment and operating cost, sparing benefits, environmental impacts, social impacts, and political onsiderations. Also, the process of organizing, collecting, and evaluating information is similar in many siting decisions. Thus, it should be possible to develop a prototypic al structure for facility siting decisions, 90 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems simply by make the generalizable features of past applications 31. Contingency planning is another recurring and typical problem. Decision and Design Inc. addressed this problem in the military context, but it also applies to planning for actions in the case of disasters such as Liquid Natural Gas plant explosions or blowouts from oil platforms.Substantive aspects that are characteristic of contingency planning are strong central control of executive organs, numerous decisions have to be made simultaneously, major events can drastically change the focus of the problem, no cost or low cost information comes in rapidly, and organizational problems may impede information flows and actions. Although, at first glance, decision trees seem to be a natural model for contingency planning, a prototypical decision model would require modifying a strictly sequential approach to accommodate these aspects.For example, the model should be flexible enough to allow for the unforeseeable (rapid electrical condenser to change the model structure), it should have rapid information updating facilities without overstressing the value of information (since most information is free), and it should attend to fine tuning of simultaneous actions and information interlinkages. Budget allocation to competing programs is another typical problem. In many such problems different programs attempt to pursue similar objectives, and program mix and balance has to be considered besides the direct benefits of single programs.Another characteristic of budgeting decisions is the continuous nature of the decision variable and the constraint of the total budget. MAU looks like a natural structure for budget allocation decision since it can handle the program evaluation aspect (see Edwards et al. 1976). But neither the balance issue nor the constrained and continuous characteristics of the budget are ap propriately adressed by MAU. A prototypical decision analytic structure would model an evaluation of the budget apportionment, or the mix of programs funded at particular levels.Such a structure would perhaps exploit dependencies or independencies among programs much like independence assumption for preferences. Regulation covers a class of decision problems with a number of repeated themes three generic groups involved (regulators, regulated, ,3 I believe that. Keeneys forthcoming book on siting energy facilities is a major step in that direction. Of. course, it could also be a step in the opposition direction. Or in no direction at all (see also first asterisked footnote at the beginning of the article). D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 91 beneficiaries of regulation), importance f monitoring and sanction schemes, usually oppose objectives of the regulated and the benefrciaries of regulation, and typically highly political objectives of the regulator. In the pre vious section, the more specific regulation problem of standard setting was discussed, and a prototypical decision analytic structure was suggested. A decision analytic structure for regulation in general can build on the main features of the standard setting model. This list could be extended to include private investment decisions, product mix selection, resource development, diagnostic problems, etc. But the four examples hopefully re sufficient to demonstrate how prototypical decision analytic structuring can be approached in general. In my opinion, such an approach to structuring could be at least as useful for the implementation of decision analysis as computerization of decision models. Besides the technical advantages of trahsferability, prototypical decision analytic structures would serve to show that decision analysts are truly concerned about problems. at present decision analysis books have chapters such as simple decisions under uncertainty and multiattribute evaluati on problems. I am looking forward to chapters such as siting industrial acilities, pollution control management, and contingency planning. References Brown, R. V. and J. W. Ulvila, 1977. Selecting analytic approaches for decision situations. (Revised edition. ) Vol. I Overview of the methodology. Technical report no. TR77-7-25, Decisions and Designs, Inc. , McLean, VA. Brown, R. V. , A. S. Kahr and C. Peterson, 1974. Decision analysis for the manager. newfound York Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Edwards, W. , M. Guttentag and K. Snapper, 1976. A decision-theoretic approach to evaluation research. In E. L. Streuning and M. Guttentag (eds. ), Handbook of evaluation research, I. London Sage.Fischer, D. W. and D. von Winterfeldt, 1978. Setting standards for chronic oil discharges in the North Sea. Journal of Environmental Management 7, 177-199. Gardiner, P. C. and A. Ford, in press. A merger of simulation and evaluation for applied policy research in social systems. In K. Snapper (ed. ), Practical evaluation case studies in simplifying complex decision problems. Washington, DC Information Resource Press. Hogarth, R. M. , C. Michaud and J. -L. Mery, 1980. Decision behavior in urban development a methodological approach and substantive considerations. Acta Psychologica 45, 95-117. Hiipfmger, E. and R. Avenhaus, 1978.A game theoretic framework for . dynamic standard setting procedures. IIASA-RM-78. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria. 92 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems Hopfinger, E. and D. von Winterfeldt, 1979. A dynamic model for setting railway noise standards. In 0. Moeschlin and D. Pallaschke (eds. ), Game theory and related topics. Amsterdam North-Holland. pp. 59-69. Howell, W. C. and S. A. Burnett, 1978. Uncertainty measurement a cognitrve taxonomy. Organizational Behavior and man Performance 22,45-68. Humphreys, P. C. , 1980. Decision aids aiding decisions. In L.Sjoberg, T. Tyszka and J. A. Wise (eds), De cision analyses and decision processes, 1. Lund Doxa (in press). Humphreys, P. C. and A. R. Humphreys, 1975. An investigation of subjective preference orderings for multiattributed alternatives. In D. Wendt and C. Vlek (eds. ), Utility, probability, and human decision making. Dordrecht, Holland Reidel, pp. 119-133. Humphreys, P. C. and A. Wisudha, 1979. MAUD an interactive computer program for the structuring, rotting and recomposition of preferences between multiattributed alternatives. Technical report 79-2, Decision Analysis Unit, Brunel University, Uxbridge, England.Johnson, E. M. and G. P. Huber, 1977. The technology of utility assessment. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, vol. SMCJ, 5. Keeney, R. L. , in press. Siting of energy facilities. New York Academic Press. Keeney, R. L. and H. Raiffa, 1976. Decisions with multiple objectives preferences and value tradeoffs. New York Wiley. Kelly, III, C. W. , 1978. Decision aids engineering science and clinical art. Technical Report, Decisions and Designs, Inc. , McLean, VA. Kelly, C. and S. Barclay, 1973. A general Bayesian model for hierarchical inference. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 10, 388-403.Kneppreth, N. P. , D. H. Hoessel, D. H. Gustafson, and E. M. Johnson, 1977. A strategy for selecting a worth assessment technique. Technical paper 280, U. S. Army Research Institute for Behavioral and Social Sciences, Arlington, VA. MacCrimmon, K. R. , 1973. An overview of multiple criteria decision making. In J. L. Cochrane and M. Zeleney (eds. ), Multiple criteria decision making. Columbia, SC The University of South Carolina Press. pp. 18-44. MacCrimmon, K. R. and R. N. Taylor, 1975. Problem solving and decision making. In M. C. Dunnette (ed. ), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. New York Rand McNally.Mannheim, M. L. and F. Hall, 1967. Abstract representation of goals a method for making decisions in complex problems. In Transportation, a service. Proceedings o f the Sesquicentennial Forum, New York academy of Sciences American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York. Miller, J. R. , 1970. Professional decision making a procedure for evaluating complex alternatives. New York Praeger. Miller, AC. , M. W. Merkhofer, R. A. Howard, J. E. Matheson and T. R. Rice, 1976. Development of automated aids for decision analysis. Technical report, Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, CA. Raiffa, H. , 1968. Decision analysis.Reading, MA Addison-Wesley. Sage, A. , 1977. methodology for large scale systems. New York McGraw-Hill. Taylor, R. C. , 1974. Nature of problem ill-structuredness implications for problem formulation and solution. Decision Sciences 5,632-643. Vlek, C. and W. A. Wagenaar, 1979. Judgment and decision under uncertainty. In J. A. Michon, E. G. Eijkman and L. F. W. DeKlerk (eds. ), Handbook of psychonomics, II. Amsterdam North-Holland. pp. 253-345. Warfield, J. , 1974. Structuring complex systems. Batelle Memorial Institute Monog raph, no. 4. Winterfeldt, D. von, 1978. A decision aiding system for improving the environmental standardD. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 93 setting process. In K. Chikocki and A. Straszak (eds. ), Systems analysis applications to complex programs. Oxford Pergamon Press. pp. 119-124. Winterfeldt, D. von and D. W. Fischer, 1975. Multiattribute utility models and scaling procedures. In D. Wendt and C. Vlek (eds. ), Utility, probability, and human decision making. Dordrecht, Holland Reidel. pp. 47-86. Winterfeldt, D. von, R. Avenhaus, W. Htiele and E. Hopfmger, 1978. Procedures for the establishment of standards. IIASA-AR-78-A, B, C. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria.

Corporate finance Essay

There are three main reasons companies bargain for investings in debt or stock securities. The first reason is if corporations have extra silver that they dont need for immediate purchase of operating assets.The second reason is Companies purchase investments to generate earnings from investment income. The third reason companies purchase investments is for strategic reasons. A company can exercise some form over a customer by owning a significant, but not controlling, interest in that company. Or, a company may purchase a non controlling interest in another company in a related industry in which it wishes to establish a presence. (Weygandt, Kimmel, & Kieso, 2010).Sometimes corporations will have wasted cash for investment reasomns. It may invest in things, incase in the future the economy travel then it has money to fall back on when money is gone, or low. 3. Low-risk, high-liquidity, short-term securities such as government-issued securities are best when investing for short periods of time. 4. Debt securities, from banks and other financial institutions and stock securities from mutual funds and allowance funds generate earnings when investing. 5.6. Stocks of companies in a related industry or in an unrelated industry that the company wishes to enterQ E12-2 Foren Corporation had the following transactions pertaining to debt investments. Jan. 1 Purchased 50 8%, $1,000 Choate Co. bonds for $50,000cash plus brokerage fees of $900. rice beer is payable biyearlyly on July 1 and January 1. July 1 Received semiannual interest on Choate Co. bonds. July 1 Sold 30 Choate Co. bonds for $34,000 less $500 brokerage fees. Instructions(a) Journalize the transactions.(b) aim the adjusting entry for the accrual of interest at December 31.A. Jan. 1Debt investments $50,900Cash $50,900July 1Cash $2000 come to rev.$2000July 1Cash $33,500Debt Investment $33,540Gain on sale $2,960Dec. 31Interest receivable $2000Interest revenue $2000ReferencesWeygandt, J. J., Kimmel, P. D., & Kieso, D. E. (2010). Financial accounting (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ John Wiley & Sons.

Literature Review of multinational cost of capital 2233 Essay

Literature Review of multinational toll of great(p) 2233 - Essay ExampleThe common equity highlights the opportunity cost that is obtained from the funds and aim the amounts in other stocks. The cost exceeds the retained earnings as it includes the disbursements that argon linked with the sale of bleak stocks (Durand, 1963 Heston and Rouwenhorst, 1994).The cost of debt of a multinational can be measured easily as it incurs the interest expense that results from the borrowing funds. The multinationals are observed to use specific mix of capital components and employ appropriate capital structure, which has the ability to reduce its cost of capital (Kraus and Litzenberger, 1973). When cost of capital of multinationals is low, the rate of return on projects is alike observed to be low. The companies predict their cost of capital before conducting any capital budgeting technique as they have to calculate their net present value of the project. This net present value is dependent on cost of capital (Kraus and Litzenberger, 1973).The multinational companies encounter intricate cost of capital problems as compared to their domestic counterparts. This complexness offers higher opportunity to the firms to reduce their cost of capital. In the last 50 years, the application of financial care has changed to a great extent. This is reflected on the ownership structure and size of the company. This has also altered the functions of financial systems and the instruments that are used for depicting the financial structure of the company (Modigliani and Miller, 1958). This research paper aims at highlighting the assorted aspects of multinational cost of capital by emphasising on the opinions of different authors.The multinational companies have the ability to bear capital for its operation from different capital markets around the world, despite its domestic opportunity. It is well identified that the multinational companies often encounter difficulty in the foreign country due to the difference in cost of capital between the

Research Analysis on the Effects of Functional Mobility Skills Paper

Analysis on the effects of Functional Mobility Skills Training for Young Students with corporeal Disabilites - Research make-up Example2. Literature Review In order to introduce the research problem to the readers several references were cited by the investigator. Three key dismantles which researcher has discussed in literature review are enlisted below a) The researcher has presented the strengths and flunk of Traditional Developmental Modal through literature review. Most of the researchers have reached the consensus that the traditional approaches are trammel for learning motor and operating(a) skills. (Crt Marincek, 2001, p.251). b) Secondly, the supremacy of functional modal over the developmental modal is discussed at length. Functional modal use of therapy integrated with education is more natural and beneficent. (Piercy, 1986, p.6). c) Another important point of discussion is the validity and acceptability of MOVE model. MOVE is spirited to embed mobility skill pract ice into functional every day routines. (Miller, 2005, p.831). 3. Research Format Following facts about the research were identified, a) interpretation of the Research Format(s) The Effects of Functional Mobility Skills training for Young students with Physical Disabilities is a qualitative as well as a quantitative research. The research deals with the statistical details and comparisons as well as talks about the abstract and qualitative issues with of MOVE curriculum. Moreover, hypothesis of the research cannot be precisely described rather is will terminus in some general conclusion which will require further studies and observations to strengthen the hypothesis. The research design is quasi-experimental in nature because its offer less randomization of participants being only five. Quasi-experimental designs are particularly utilizable in natural and a classroom setting which is the case in this research. Moreover, the research is more virtual(a) and less academic which is also an attribute of quasi-experimental research designs. The Effects of Functional Mobility Skills training for Young students with Physical Disabilities is a single group research design. These designs are used were immediate and more practical resulted indispensable to be established in order to ascertain the effects of a treatment conducted in the research. b) Description of the Method(s) of Data Collection Direct observation and regularise measure are used as the close prominent information collection methodologies. Direct observation method requires a clear definition of sign behaviors and observer may be a teacher, parent or some other external observer. alike(p) data may be collected using a specific instrument like gait Trainer or through some other means like interviews and/or questionnaires etc. to disk results and reaction in an experiment. All participants in the experiment are subjected to the same tests which increase the validity of the data collection. c) De scription of the Method(s) of Data Analysis The data is mainly collected through direct observation and standardized measures. However, it is not an extensively diverse dataset and the analysis and comparisons are conducted through simple graphical representation of data in line graphs. These graphs are elaborated through variation of means and percentages and other statistical tools. Moreover, the crossway across phases,

Americas post civil was growing pains Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Americas post civil was growing pains - shew ExampleBut during this period, a lot of people who entered America suffered a lot of pain because of discrimination. The discourse of whites and blacks were different, and it took a long time before everything in immigration was smoothed out. Two questions loom on this topic Could events have been different if President capital of Nebraska had not been assassinated, and how industrialisation touch the lives of the American citizens during this period. To the foremost question Could events in the Reconstruction period have been different if President capital of Nebraska had not been assassinated. Yes, I believe it would have been because he had a lenient plan of transformation. The period of 186577 was called the Reconstruction conclusion in the U.S. history because it was a time when the federal government reinstated the states that had seceded during the state of war. It was a time when President Lincoln had to face umpteen politi cal and social issues such as how to deal with the states when they were reunited, how to deal with the freed slaves, and how should Southern whites be treated (Kelly, n.d.). If President Lincoln had it his way and if he had not been assassinated, he would have had lenient proposals for the seceded states. First, he wanted to consider those states that seceded on or at the outbreak of war as if they had not seceded. He wanted to grant pardon to southerners who participated in the war if they pledged allegiance to the United States. Second, President Lincoln would allow readmission of the state if it formed a government that would guarantee freedom of slaves, and if 10% of white voters in that state took an oath of allegiance to the US (Kelly, n.d.). His political opponents did not agree with this and after his death, made the reintegration difficult. To the consequence question How industrialization and urbanization affected the life of the average working American during the perio d. It was significantly affected in many ways economically, socially and culturally. The industrialization that started in early 1800s continued to grow steady amidst the Civil War, although the American industry at that time was described to be typically small. However, after the war, when reforms were introduced, industrialization grew more tremendously as machines replaced hand labor, railroad network allowed marketing and distribution of goods in many areas, and inventions made work processes easier. Machines produced a greater number of goods, gave jobs to more people, and created specialization and labor division. As industrialization grew, the life of the average American was affected. Since businesses were situated in cities, people began to flock the cities in droves to look for work. The approachability of jobs in cities attracted people from the farms to the cities. This situation, according to the website of theusa.online.com (n.d.), created an economic division of the rich and the poor, which was widely resented by the people. It had created the wealthy, middle gradation and the underprivileged class of society. Immigration caused the population of America to grow by more than double, from 40 one million million million to 100 million from 1870 to 1970 (theusa.online.com, n.d.) This period also depicts different pictures of an era. The South was economically behind the North because of the war while the frontier life of the West ended. The South remained to be an agricultural area all passim the period of industrialization. The farming

International Culture and the Impact on Approaches to Managing People Literature review

International Culture and the Impact on Approaches to Managing People - Literature review usageFrom the data he gathered, he defined five critical dimensions that are important in sympathy the cultural setting of a foreign market. Over the years, advances in research have do Hofstedes cultural frame pee-pee questionable. This paper will discuss the five dimensions and offer a critique of distributively dimension.Proponents of Hofstedes framework have highlighted that it has a measure of relevance. Notably, that Hofstedes cultural framework presents some benevolent characteristics to some researchers. The fact that the cultural framework emerged when minimal data existed concerning the effect of grow to businesses makes Hofstedes work outstanding. Moreover, during that time, there were minimal scholarly studies and the fact that Hofstede relied on one to develop his cultural framework made his work appealing (Blodgett, Bakir, & Rose 2008, p. 340). Moreover, he carried out severa l systematic studies with the same purpose of discretion how different societies held different cultural views. Finally, he combined data from all his studies and real the dimensions of his cultural framework. matchless of the underlying factors that contribute to questioning of Hofstedes framework is the definition of culture. Notably, exists is no specific definition of culture that has received acceptance from different scholars. There are numerous definitions of culture and the relevance of any cultural theory depends on the definition of culture used by the scholar. According to Hofstede, culture denotes a incarnate programming evident in the mind of individuals, belonging to a certain group, and that makes them different from other groups. Therefore, Hofstede developed his cultural framework based on the definition of culture as mental programming comprising of thoughts and feelings that goaded how members of a certain group act. The reason why